During the Protestant reformation of the 16th century, John Calvin, amongst others, accused the Catholic Church of creating the concept of priestly penance during the 1215 Fourth Lateran Council. Was Calvin justified in his claims? Mark Reidy looks at the history of the Church in relation to her understanding of the role of priests and the confession of sins.
The history of the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation
The Scriptural foundation of this Sacrament stems from Jesus’ words, “the Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Matt 9:6).
Jesus then granted this divine power to His Apostles to exercise in His name when He proclaimed to Peter, “I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven” (Matt 16:19).
Also on the day of His Resurrection, He appeared and announced to them, “‘Peace be with you. As the Father has sent me, so am I sending you’. After saying this He breathed on them and said: ‘Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive anyone’s sins, they are forgiven; if you retain anyone’s sin they are retained’” (Jn 20: 21-23). Through Apostolic succession, today’s priests, who, through their ordained ministry, make visible “the presence of Christ as head of the Church” (Catholic Catechism – 1549) have been granted this same power.
The Church teaches that it is only God who can forgive sins and that priests are acting as His representatives.
Evidence from the earliest Church documents indicate that hearing the Confession of sins by the faithful to those in leadership existed from her very foundation:
In his Epistle to the Corinthians, Pope Clement I, who died in the year 99, exhorts followers to repentance by imploring them to “submit themselves to the presbyters and receive correction so as to repent”.
In the early 2nd century, written in a prayer used by St Hippolytus in the consecration of a Bishop, are the words, “Grant him, O Lord … the power to forgive sins”.
Writing against Marcionistic traditions Dionysius of Corinth, who died in 170, taught not only that Christ had left to His Church the power of pardon, but that, “no sin is so great as to be excluded from the exercise of that power”.
Tertullian, a 3rd century apologist known as ‘The Father of Latin Christianity,” who is known to have coined the term ‘The Trinity’, confirmed the Church’s understanding of Her role at this time by stating that he believed that the Church could not forgive all sins as it proclaimed. He said that there are lighter sins that can be forgiven by the Bishop, but that there are more grievous sins that only God can forgive.
In 251, St Hieriomartyr Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, rebuked those who had fallen away in time of persecution but also exhorted them to penance: “Let each confess his sin while still in this world, while his Confession can be received, while satisfaction and the forgiveness granted by the priests is acceptable to God.”
St John Chrysostom, a Doctor of the Church who died in 407, wrote, “be not ashamed to approach (the priest) because you have sinned, nay rather, for this very reason, approach.”
St Athanasius (d 373), “As the man whom the priest baptises is enlightened by the grace of the Holy Ghost, so does he who in penance confesses his sins, receive through the priest forgiveness in virtue of the grace of Christ.”
St Ambrose (d 397) rebukes the heretical Novatianists who, “professed to show reverence for the Lord by reserving to Him alone the power of forgiving sins. Greater wrong could not be done than what they do in seeking to rescind His commands and fling back the office He bestowed …” He also wrote: “Christ granted this (power) to the Apostles and from the Apostles it has been transmitted to the office of priests” and “this right of (of loosing and binding) has been conferred on priests only”
Against the same heretics, St Pacian, Bishop of Barcelona (d 390), wrote to a Church leader: “This (forgiving sins), you say, only God can do. Quite true: but what He does through His priests is the doing of His own power”.
In the 4th century Apostolic Constitution – a liturgical/instructional book for the Church – it is written: “Grant him O Lord Almighty, through thy Christ, the participation of Thy Holy spirit, in order that he may have the power to remit sins according to thy precept and Thy command, and to loosen every bond, whatsoever it be, according to the power which Thou hast granted to the Apostles”.
St John Chrysostom also declared that the power to forgive sins that had been “given to neither angel nor archangel, but to priests, penetrates the soul and reaches up to heaven.”
Doctor of the Church, St Augustine, in a warning to the faithful in the early 5th century wrote: “Let us not listen to those who deny that the Church of God has power to forgive all sins.” Also answering those who argued that repentance was an affair of the soul and did not require an intermediary, St Augustine stated, “Was it then said to no purpose, ‘What you shall loose upon earth shall be loosed in heaven’? Was it for nothing that the keys were given to the Church?”
Pope Leo the Great (Pope 440-461), when drawing attention to the faithful that the practice of reading their sins out in public was an abuse of the Apostolic Rule, wrote: “It suffices that the guilt of the conscience be manifested to priests alone in secret Confession”.
In 604, Pope Gregory I wrote: “… the affliction of Penance is efficacious in blotting out sins when it is enjoined by the sentence of the priest when the burden of it is decided by him in proportion to the offence after weighing the deeds of those who confess”.
Egbert, Archbishop of York (d 766), said: “Let the sinner confess his evil deeds to God, that the priest may know what penance to impose.”
St Anastasius Sinaita (7th Century theologian) wrote, “Confess your sins to Christ through the priest”.
Such historical documentation indicates that the Church had always recognised that Christ had granted Her the power, through Her ordained ministers, to forgive sins, but it appears that the problem which led to Calvin’s accusations, stemmed from a lack of official, unified documentation prior to the 12th century rather than a fabrication by the Fourth Lateran Council.
Perhaps Calvin and other reformists did not have access to the writings of 7th and 8th century Irish monks such as St Columbanus (d 615) and Englishmen, Bede (d 735), Egbert and Theodore of Canterbury (d 690) that had described and examined elements of Penance, or to the decrees pertaining to Confession that were enacted at Chalons (650, 813), Chaleuth (785), Tours (813), Paris (820), Worms (868) and Reims (1113). In hindsight, we can recognise that the Church had been attempting to regulate the practice in the latter half of the first millennium, but it seems that it was only during the 12th century that more concrete and official formulas for both priest and penitent began to appear.
The 1215 Fourth Lateran Council specified that all faithful who had reached the age of discretion were to confess their sins to their own parish priest at least once every year, that they were not able to confess to another priest unless permission was granted by their own priest and that the secrecy of all Confession be abided to by priests or they would be deposed of their office.
A formula to be used during Confession had also been developed. Twelfth Century theologian Adam Scotus wrote: “The Sacrament of Penance is the absolution imparted with certain word”. He also mentioned that the acts of the penitent were required for the worthy reception of the Sacrament.
In 1280, the Synod of Poitiers, responding to the practice of deacons hearing confessions, announced: “We forbid deacons to hear confessions or to give absolution in the tribunal of Penance: for it is certain and beyond doubt that they cannot absolve, since they have not the keys which are conferred only in the priestly order”.
The Councils of Florence (1439) and Trent (1551) refer to aspects of Penance as, “contrition, confession and satisfaction” and states that the effect of this Sacrament is the deliverance from sin. These Councils also clarified subjects such as the time limits between sin and Confession, the choice of confessor, the obligation of confessing before receiving other sacraments, especially the Eucharist, the integrity of Confession, the obligation of secrecy on the part of the confessor, ie the seal of Confession, and developed them into a more precise format.
The Council of Trent officially declared that Confession required the performance of satisfaction. It stated that while Baptism frees the soul from all sin, as well as indebtedness to Divine justice, that even after the reception of absolution in penance “there remains some temporal debt that requires works of satisfaction”.
The Council of Trent also confirmed that only priests and Bishops have authority to grant absolution, supporting Pope Leo X’s condemnation of Martin Luther’s proposition, that “any Christian, even a woman or child” could, in the absence of a priest, absolve sins.
By the 16th century, the major framework for the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation had been constructed on the foundation that had been laid by Christ and established by the early Church.
Although there had been arguments regarding specific aspects of the Church’s role in the forgiving of sins over the first 1,500 years, the lack of opposition or schism during this time indicates that there was an understanding that such a role had always been an accepted Catholic doctrine.
Trent confirmed as much when it specifically responded to the claims of Calvin – “The Church”, it announced, “Did not, through the Lateran Council, prescribe that the faithful of Christ confess – a thing which it knew to be by Divine right necessary and established”.
Commonly asked questions
What is sin?
The Catholic Catechism (1850) describes sin as “an offence against God”, as well as a failure in genuine love for Him and for neighbour, in essence turning our hearts away from His love for us. It is a word, deed or desire that puts oneself before God and opposes the salvation that He desires for us. By living in such a state we damage and even break our communion with God.
The Church evaluates sin according to its gravity, ie mortal or venial. For a sin to be considered mortal three conditions must together be met; it is of grave matter, and is committed with full knowledge and deliberate consent.
Grave matter is specified by the Ten Commandments and corresponds to Jesus’ words in Mark 10:19, including: Do not kill, commit adultery, steal, bear false witness, defraud and honour your father and mother.
The gravity of sins is more or less great, eg murder is graver than theft. However, while mortal sin destroys charity in the heart of man by a serious violation of God’s law, venial sin allow this charity to continue, although it does offend and wound it.
While venial sins impede the soul’s progress, they do not set one in opposition to the will and friendship of God.
What are the consequences of sin?
The Church teaches that mortal sin deprives us of communion with God and consequently makes us incapable of eternal life with Him and that venial sin entails a wounding of our relationship with Him.
What is the Sacrament called?
The Sacrament can be referred to as the Sacrament of “Conversion”, “Penance”, “Confession”, “Forgiveness” and “Reconciliation” because it incorporates all these aspects, but it is more commonly referred to as the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation.
This Sacrament is found in the Catechism under the chapter of The Sacraments of Healing because it is able to heal our relationship with God that has been wounded or broken by our sin.
Why a Sacrament of Reconciliation after Baptism?
While it is true that Baptism has provided a spiritual birth that has made us “holy and without blemish” (CC1426), it has not abolished the frailty and weakness of human nature, nor the inclination to sin.
Baptism provides us with our first and fundamental conversion but the Church also teaches that, because of this frail human nature, we are in need of a “second conversion” which is an ongoing task for the whole Church who, “clasping sinners to her bosom, (is) at once holy and always in need of purification, (and) follows constantly the path of penance and renewal” (CC1428).
What are the effects of this Sacrament?
Sin damages and even breaks our communion with God. The Sacrament of Penance repairs or restores it. It also restores the individual to ecclesial communion and has a revitalising effect on the life of the Church which has suffered from the sin of one of her members.
Why should I confess to a priest?
Fr John Flader, Director of Catholic Adult Education in the Archdiocese of Sydney, believes this Sacrament is one of the greatest gifts of the Church.
He points out that “Our Lord instituted a Sacrament for the forgiveness of sins because he knew human nature and knew we needed it.
“He knew it would be a great help for us to go through the mediation of a priest to be forgiven … We would be most ungrateful and even foolish if we did not make use of it”.
Fr Flader quotes Pope Pius XII in a 1946 radio message, “The sin of the century is the loss of the sense of sin”. Fr Flader agrees and says that coming face to face with another human being can help us maintain our spiritual sensitivity by keeping us conscious of the reality of sin.
Fr Flader believes that because we are physiological beings, and not pure spirit, we need to satisfy our humanity by sharing our burdens with another human being and then hearing the spoken words that we are forgiven.
Pope John Paul II is in agreement. When speaking to a general audience in 1984, he stated that if Jesus had not established the very human sacrament of Penance then God Himself would, “fade into a far off abstraction which would in the end become a colourless, irritating and despairing imitation of ourselves”.
Fr Flader also proposes that without the mediation and judgement of a priest we would inevitably judge ourselves, “and no-one can be a good judge in his own case”.
He also adds that Jesus personally healed the sick and forgave sinners while He was on earth, giving them His individual attention. Through His priests, He is able to continue that personal touch.
How often should I go to Confession?
Once Catholics have attained the age of discretion they are obligated to utilise the Sacrament at least once a year. However, at any time, if one is aware that they have committed a mortal sin, they must not receive Holy Communion until they have first attended the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation.
However, it is vital that we understand the benefits of this Sacrament so that there is a desire and not merely a sense of obligation to utilise it.
Fr Flader reminds us of these advantages: “Confession offers so many benefits, and if Christ gave it to the Church as a gift, it is only natural that we should want to take advantage of it frequently. We need it and it will give us the vitality, the self-knowledge, the humility, the sincerity, the grace, etc that we need to be truly effective leaven, salt and light in society,” he said.
The Church also strongly recommends and encourages regular confession of everyday faults (venial sins) to assist us to, “form our conscience, fight against evil tendencies, let ourselves be healed by Christ and progress in the light of the Spirit” (CC1458).
The Church believes that a penitent will become merciful the more frequently they receive God’s mercy through this Sacrament.
Saints and Popes throughout the ages have regularly promoted and encouraged the benefits and grace received through the frequent Confession of sins, perhaps even more so in recent times:
Pope Pius XII wrote in his Encyclical Mystici Corporis: “For a constant and speedy advancement in the path of virtue we highly recommend the pious practice of frequent confession, introduced by the Church under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; for by this means we grow in a true knowledge of ourselves and in Christian humility, bad habits are uprooted, spiritual negligence and apathy are prevented, and conscience is purified and the will strengthened, salutary spiritual direction is obtained, and grace is increased by the efficacy of the sacrament itself”.
Pope John XXIII wrote at the age of 80, “During my whole life I have kept faithful to my practice of weekly confession”.
Pope John Paul II said: “It would be an illusion to seek holiness, according to the vocation one has received from God, without partaking frequently of this Sacrament of Conversion and Reconciliation. Those who go to Confession frequently, and do so with the desire to make progress, will notice the strides that they make in their spiritual lives.”
In March 2007, Pope Benedict XVI, in a talk on the Sacrament of Reconciliation, addressed priests as “stewards of divine mercy for the salvation of souls” and implored them to assist penitents in understanding that central to this Sacrament is a personal encounter with God and that the regular celebration of this sacrament and a Christian life that aspires to holiness are inseparable elements of the same spiritual process.
“It is not sin which is at the heart of the sacramental celebration but rather God’s mercy, which is infinitely greater than any guilt of ours,” Pope Benedict said.
What is the Sacramental Seal?
Every priest who hears confession is bound under very severe penalties to keep absolute secrecy regarding the sins that they have heard.
He can make no use of knowledge that confession gives him about penitents’ lives. This secrecy, of which there are no exceptions, is called the sacramental seal.
What are the different rites of Confession and when are they
permitted?
There are three rites accepted by the Church:
1st – This is the most common form of the Sacrament. It involves penitents presenting themselves individually before a priest and following this liturgical procedure; the priest will greet and bless the person, then read from the word of God to help illumine the conscience and elicit contrition.
The penitent will then express repentance, followed by the verbal confession of all known sins. The priest will then impose an appropriate penance, provide absolution and then offer a prayer of thanksgiving and a final blessing. The penitent is encouraged to satisfy the penance as soon as possible.
2nd – Penitents also make personal confession to a priest and are given individual absolution, but these are inserted into a liturgical celebration which includes communal readings, homily, an examination of conscience and a request for forgiveness.
3rd – A communal celebration of reconciliation with general Confession and general absolution.
This form of the Sacrament can only be used when there is imminent danger of death without sufficient time for the priest or priests to hear the confessions of individual penitents.
In these cases, for the absolution to be valid, the faithful must have the intention of individually confessing their grave sins when possible.
The local Bishop is to decide whether or not conditions for general absolution exist. The Church is adamant that large gatherings, such as major feasts or pilgrimages, do not constitute a grave necessity.
The Catechism states that “individual, integral Confession and absolution remain the only ordinary way for the faithful to reconcile themselves with God and the Church, unless physical or moral impossibility excuses from this kind of confession”(1484).
The Church believes that personal confession is the most expressive form of reconciliation with God and the Church because it allows Christ, the physician, to individually tend and cure each one of the sick. He personally addresses every sinner: “My son, your sins are forgiven.”
Why the need for Penance?
The Church teaches that absolution takes away sin but it does not remedy all the disorders that sin has caused.
Once forgiven of their sins, it is necessary for a penitent to make amends for those sins so that they can “recover their full spiritual health” (CC1459). The satisfaction of this is known as “penance”.
When imposing this penance, a priest is expected to take into account the personal situation of the person and the gravity and nature of the sin but must always be guided by what is spiritually good for the penitent.
PLUS:
7 reasons to go to Confession in Lent
1 Priestly absolution is an awesome gift that Jesus gave us.
Jesus gave us this Sacrament and wants us to enjoy His grace through it.
He told His first priests, the Apostles: “Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, their sins are forgiven” (John 20:22). Christ gave us this Sacrament of grace and forgiveness because He loves us. It is a divine gift of mercy and love – not merely an obligation.
2 You are a sinner.
We are a sinners and we need to examine the sinful patterns of our hearts and have a priest give us absolution, counsel and penance. “If we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us” (1 Jn 1:8). We are often not honest with our hearts and it takes an objective “physician of souls” to help diagnose us spiritually.
3 Confession is a means of grace.
Confession shouldn’t be terrifying. It is peaceful. We get excited over baptisms, weddings and ordinations. Why not the remedy for our greatest Christian struggle? Why not be excited about Christ’s forgiveness being declared by His appointed deputies – the priests of His Church.
4 You may have committed mortal sin.
And yes, there is such a thing as mortal sin: If anyone sees his brother committing what is not a mortal sin, he will ask, and God will give him life for those whose sin is not mortal. There is sin which is mortal (1 Jn 5:16). Mortal sin is deadly and it separates our souls from the pure eternal life that exists within the Blessed Trinity.
Contrition and priestly absolution restores our hearts to a position of love toward God and our neighbours. It ratifies our repentance.
5 Guilt is unpleasant.
Often, Satan weighs us down with guilt.
Guilt can be a good thing if we transform it into repentance. Of course, Satan hates this and God and the angels love it. So free yourself from guilt and hear a tangible person with spiritual authority say, “I absolve thee in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.”
6 Confession unites you more fully to the Church.
When you make your Confession to a priest, you acknowledge that you have sinned not only against God, but against every single other Christian because by your sin you have weakened the universal witness of every single Christian. You have given the non-believer the excuse that “All Christians are hypocrites.” When you go to Confession, you acknowledge that you have caused every Christian to suffer by your sins. “If one member suffers, all suffer together; if one member is honoured, all rejoice together” (1 Cor 12:26). The priest, who represents both God and the Church by his ordination and office, receives your repentance and you have the assurance of not only God’s forgiveness but also the implicit forgiveness of the entire Church.
7 Receiving the Eucharist becomes even more powerful.
When you receive the Holy Eucharist you receive the true Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Christ our Redeemer.
When you confess your sins in a sacramental way, you also have a stronger sacramental union with Christ in the Eucharist. Also, if you are living in mortal sin, you should NEVER receive the Eucharist because you blaspheme Christ and set yourself up for greater judgement and eternal damnation.
Consequently, confession heals and deepens your devotion to Christ in the Most Blessed Sacrament.